The Necessity for Continued Teacher Support Can Be Minimized Through the Use of:

Abstract

The COVID-19 crisis has forced didactics systems worldwide to observe alternatives to face up-to-face education. As a upshot, online instruction and learning have been used by teachers and students on an unprecedented calibration. Since lockdowns – either massive or localised - may be needed again in the future to respond to new waves of the infection until a vaccine becomes available, information technology is of utmost importance for governments to identify which policies tin can maximise the effectiveness of online learning. This policy cursory examines the function of students' attitudes towards learning in maximising the potential of online schooling when regular face-to-face instruction cannot have place. Since parents and teachers play a cardinal office in supporting students to develop these crucial attitudes, particularly in the current situation, targeted policy interventions should be designed with the aim of reducing the brunt on parents and help teachers and schools make the nigh of digital learning.

Cardinal findings and recommendations:

The current COVID-19 crisis has obliged near education systems to adopt alternatives to face-to-face teaching and learning. Many educational activity systems moved activities online, to allow teaching to continue despite schoolhouse closures.
Considering the alternative of no schooling, online schooling has been an important tool to sustain skills development during school closures. That beingness said, there are nonetheless concerns that online learning may have been a sub-optimal substitute for face-to-face teaching, especially then in the absence of universal access to infrastructure (hardware and software) and lack of adequate preparation among teachers and students for the unique demands that online pedagogy learning pose.
Developing strong attitudes towards learning can help students overcome some of the potential challenges posed by online learning such as, for example, remaining focused during online classes or maintaining sufficient motivation. They are also crucial in supporting students using information and communications technology (ICT) effectively and making the most of new technologies for learning. Positive attitudes towards learning, cocky-regulation and intrinsic motivation to learn play an important office in improving performance at school in general, but may exist especially important should online learning go on.
Students' attitudes and dispositions are influenced to a bang-up caste by the back up they receive from families and teachers and by the office models they are exposed to. Dissimilar forms of support from families and teachers, including parental emotional back up and instructor enthusiasm, are plant to be of import for the evolution of positive attitudes towards learning and tin can ensure that students acquire the attitudes and dispositions that tin maximise their ability to make the most of online learning opportunities. Yet, some families and teachers may struggle to provide such support - especially during the COVID-xix crunch - considering of a lack of time, insufficient digital skills or lack of curricular guidelines.
Education systems should aim to strengthen date between schools and parents in order to improve information and guidance to parents on effective practices for supporting their children's learning. At the same time, teachers demand support to incorporate technology effectively into their teaching practices and methods and assist students overcome some of the difficulties that are associated with this form of learning environment. Supporting teachers' training about the utilise of digital resources for pedagogical exercise and promoting teaching practices adapted to this context is fundamental to ensure that ICT is leveraged finer.

As a response to the COVID-19 crisis, many countries effectually the world airtight schools, colleges and universities to halt the spread of the virus. Co-ordinate to data from UNESCO, the meridian in school closures was registered at the beginning of Apr 2020, when around 1.6 billion learners were affected across 194 countries, accounting for more than than 90% of full enrolled learners (UNESCO, 2020[i]). The sudden closure of schools meant that didactics policy makers, school principals and teachers had to discover alternatives to face-to-face instruction in order to guarantee children'due south right to education. Many systems have adopted online educational activity (and learning) on an unprecedented calibration, often in combination with widespread remote learning materials such as television or radio. Until constructive vaccines or therapeutics for the novel Coronavirus become bachelor, it is likely that schooling may continue to be disrupted. Even if the worst case scenario of a second wave of the outbreak were non to materialise, localised and temporary school closures may yet be needed to contain manual of COVID-19. For instance, children coming in contact with infected individuals may be required to self-isolate and the lack of acceptable spaces for them to attend classes or of qualified educators to be deployed in those circumstances will force certain schools to adopt composite models to guarantee social distancing. This has already been the example, for instance, in Germany, where, merely two weeks afterwards re-opening, some schools were airtight again over Coronavirus infections. Against this uncertain backdrop, it is therefore important to identify which policies can maximise the effectiveness of online educational activity and learning.

In spite of beingness a desirable option compared to no schooling – which would take caused major interruptions in student learning with possible long-lasting consequences for the affected cohorts (Burgess, 2020[2]; Hanushek and Woessmann, 2020[3]) - the sudden switch to using digital instruction may have led to sub-optimal results if compared to a business every bit usual in-presence pedagogy, every bit teachers, students and schools all had to unexpectedly arrange to a novel state of affairs. This policy brief takes stock of some of the difficulties encountered by students, teachers and schools while adapting to online learning in social club to empathize how remote schooling tin be improved further, should online learning become necessary to prevent widespread transmission.

The starting time concern which has arisen is that online learning is simply available to children that have access to a broadband connexion at habitation that is fast enough to support online learning. While network operators take mainly been successful to maintain services and efficiently employ pre-existing capacity during phases of lockdown (OECD, 2020[4]), there are however geographical areas and population groups that are underserved, especially in rural and remote areas and among low-income groups. For example, in many OECD countries, fewer than half of rural households are located in areas where fixed broadband at sufficient speeds is available. In addition, children demand to have access to devices such every bit computers and the necessary software to participate in online learning activities, which is often a challenge for lower‑income households.

For those students that are connected, the second concern is that certain students have not been able to receive a sufficient number of hours of instruction. For example, in the United Kingdom, 71% of state school children received no or less than one daily online lesson (Green, 2020[five]), while in Germany only six% of students had online lessons on a daily ground and more than half had them less than in one case a calendar week (Woessmann et al., 2020[6]). Some economists have estimated that, as a event of this, students in the United States will resume their schooling in the fall of 2022 with roughly 70% of the learning gains relative to a typical school twelvemonth on average and that the learning gains might be even smaller in mathematics, amounting to just 50% (Kuhfeld and Tarasawa, 2020[7]). It is therefore important for education policy-makers to empathise which factors have prevented certain children from receiving sufficient teaching – amidst them, in add-on to the lack of infrastructure, the absence of acceptable preparation in schools and among teachers, as well equally, in some cases, the lack of curriculum guidelines. These elements take as well adamant a great variation, across schools and countries, in the quality of online learning, raising the concern that disparities in educational outcomes beyond socioeconomic groups may be reinforced in the absenteeism of corrective measures. For case, in the United States, over 1‑tertiary of students have been completely excluded from online learning, particularly in schools with large shares of low-income students, while elite private schools experienced about full attendance (The Economist, 2020[8]; Khazan, 2020[9]). Similarly, evidence from England (United Kingdom) suggests that children from better-off families spent 30% more time on dwelling house learning than those from poorer families during the lockdown, and their parents reported feeling more able to support them than socio-economically disadvantaged parents, while students from richer schools had access to more individualised resources (such every bit online tutoring or chats with teachers) (IFS, 2020[10]) .

Further concerns relate to the fact that the effectiveness of online learning might have been hindered, in some cases, by the lack of basic digital skills among certain students and teachers, making them unprepared to adapt to the new situation then abruptly (OECD, 2020[xi]). For example, descriptive evidence based on PISA 2018 shows that there were major differences across countries and socio-economical groups in the use of technology for schoolwork earlier the pandemic among 15-year-olds, raising the concern that students who were less experienced might exist those suffering the virtually from the stupor caused past online learning.

Figure 1. Mean Index of ICT use outside of school for schoolwork, by socio-economic groups

Effigy 1 indicates that, in almost all countries, students from low socio-economical backgrounds made less frequent use of digital technologies compared to their peers from high socio-economic backgrounds before the pandemic in 2018. Disparities were particularly hit in Australia, United mexican states, South Korea and the United States. Like differences are observed betwixt students from public and private schools, with the latter making more frequent utilise of digital technologies for schoolwork (OECD, Forthcoming[12]).

In improver, some teachers might too accept struggled to adapt to online teaching so abruptly due to a lack of adequate digital skills, possibly contributing to a great heterogeneity in the quality of online educational activity across schools. An antecedent result in the literature is in fact that the effectiveness of ICT for learning purposes depends considerably on the digital competencies of teachers and on whether technology is incorporated into pedagogical practices (OECD, 2010[xiii]) in an effective manner (see Box 1).

Box 1. Impact of digital learning on students' performance: What do nosotros know?

While in recent years governments of many countries take been investing increasing resources to raise the availability of digital devices across schools and households, some academic literature has tried to establish the mechanisms through which the use of digital devices affects students' learning. What has emerged is that merely providing access or using digital technologies does not automatically lead to better bookish results (Escueta et al., 2017[14]). For example, Angrist and Lavy (2002[15]) assessed the bear upon of Israel's Tomorrow-98 programme, which was launched in the mid-90s to provide schools with computers and teachers with training for estimator-aided instruction. They document a negative human relationship between the plan-induced utilize of computers and maths scores. Similar findings come from the evaluation of a Dutch subsidy scheme for computers and software in schools, which had a negative impact on educatee achievement in language, arithmetic and information processing (Leuven et al., 2007[16]). Other studies have found negligible effects of ICT employ. In 2008, a large scale experiment was launched in Italian republic to provide 156 classes with large grants to buy ICT: despite its huge cost – in the order of EUR 1 500 per pupil – the Cl@ssi2.0 programme was found to have only a negligible upshot on student achievements (Checchi, Rettore and Girardi, 2015[17]). Similarly, a field experiment involving the provision of costless computers to low-income schoolchildren for home apply in the U.s. state of California did non improve educational outcomes (Fairlie and Robinson, 2013[eighteen]). Such negative or negligible furnishings take been mainly attributed to uses of ICT that substitute for more effective traditional instruction (Bulman and Fairlie, 2016[xix]): for example, a study suggests that classroom computers are beneficial to students' achievements when used to expect upwardly information simply detrimental when used to practice skills and procedures (Falck, Mang and Woessmann, 2018[20]). Other studies illustrate that digital tools are beneficial to student learning when they are used to complement traditional pedagogy, east.one thousand. extending written report time and enhancing educatee motivation (Fleischer, 2012[21]; Peterson et al., 2018[22])

Based on this knowledge, efforts should be made by governments and school principals to support teachers in incorporating online tools effectively into their instruction practices, due east.k. by fostering teachers' pedagogies aimed at providing students with guidance and motivation towards agile learning (Peterson et al., 2018[22]). Pedagogical practices should also ensure that the utilise of digital technologies and online tools corresponds to learners' needs, prior competencies and digital literacy and teachers should act as mentors to guide students and aid them remain focused on the learning elements of tasks (OECD, 2019[23]).

Still, effective pedagogical practices and ease with digital tools are necessary but not sufficient weather condition to ensure the effectiveness of online education and learning. Students' attitudes towards learning are strong drivers of their bookish achievements in regular times. Indeed, these may be crucial in sustaining students' motivation and agile learning in times of home schooling. The following section of this brief focuses on how the development of positive attitudes towards learning can promote effective skills development in a digital environment. It also identifies how positive learning attitudes can exist best promoted by parental emotional back up and instructor enthusiasm.

Positive learning attitudes can improve functioning at school and help students keep their motivation when schools are closed

Recently, there has been increasing attending devoted to sustaining the development of dissimilar non-cognitive skills among students – e.g. personality traits, goals and motivation – since they have been plant to accept direct positive effects on several socio-economic outcomes, including wages, schooling and operation in accomplishment tests. Evidence indicates that these skills are malleable and acquiescent to policy intervention and classroom practice (Heckman et al., 2014[24]).

This department will focus on 6 learning attitudes:

students' ambition to learn and sympathize every bit much as possible (aggressive learning goals);
the relevance students aspect to school for their future working careers (value of schoolhouse);
the sense of belonging to the school customs (sense of belonging);
students' delivery to piece of work hard and to improve performance (motivation to principal tasks);
students' power to overcome difficulties on their own (cocky-efficacy);
the satisfaction students go from learning and reading (enjoyment of reading).

Prove from the OECD Skills Outlook 2021 (OECD, Forthcoming[12]) shows that all the in a higher place-mentioned attitudes are particularly important for students' success1 in that they are positively associated to their performance in reading, mathematics and scientific discipline. While many of these attitudes are developed at early stages of one'south learning path, they are very probable to exist carried over in adulthood, making individuals more resilient to irresolute societies and more than tending to life-long learning (OECD, Forthcoming[12]; Tuckett and Field, 2016[25]). Learning attitudes are not just innate and their development is highly influenced by schooling, parental care and investments, with high run a risk of major inequalities across socio-economic groups. Data show, for instance, that in a vast majority of OECD countries, socio-economically advantaged students are significantly more probable to have ambitious learning goals equally compared to disadvantaged students (Figure two). This somewhen affects besides their proficiency and academic performance.

Figure 2. Mean value of ambitious learning goals, for advantaged vs. disadvantaged students

While positive attitudes towards learning are important drivers of students' educational attainments during normal times, they are probable to be even more than of import in the current context, considering of the unique challenges posed by online learning: online learning requires students to rely on intrinsic motivation and cocky-directed learning. Developing strong learning attitudes, for instance, is fundamental if pupils are to remain focused and motivated in hard learning environments and could therefore exist central to address the main difficulties that students may encounter again in the nigh future, if a second moving ridge of school closures were to materialise before the health crisis has been fully addressed.

Effigy iii provides indication of the importance of attitudes for learning when this learning is mediated past digital technologies by comparing the association between a very frequent use of ICT for schoolwork and students' performance in reading among students who are, respectively, in the elevation and bottom quartiles of each learning attitude. Results show that, among students who make a very frequent use of ICT for schoolwork, those with stronger attitudes towards learning achieve significantly higher proficiency levels than their peers with less positive attitudes.ii Further analyses shows that, while positive attitudes tend to beneficial to students' educational achievements in general, this positive association is even stronger when restricting the sample to high ICT users, suggesting that learning attitudes tin exist key to contain technologies and online tools effectively into learning. When giving closer consideration to the function of different learning attitudes, information show that students' dispositions to develop ambitious learning goals and to attribute high value to school may be particularly important for maximining the effect of online learning. For example, in Ireland, amidst students making an extensive utilize of ICT for schoolwork, those with strong ambitious learning goals score 32 points more in reading tests compared to their peers lacking aggressive goals.3

Figure 3. Association between learning attitudes and reading performance among students making intensive use of ICT outside of school for schoolwork

Attitudes and dispositions toward learning are important drivers of students' educational achievements. In the context of online learning, they tin assist students to contain more efficiently digital technologies and online tools into the learning process.

Families and teachers: Can they provide effective support to digital learning?

Learning attitudes are rooted in the back up that students receive from teachers and families. Analyses based on PISA 2018 in the OECD Skills Outlook 2021 (OECD, Forthcoming[12]) shed light on the crucial office played past both instructor practices and parental emotional support as important drivers of the development of attitudes. Different forms of back up tin can be incentivised and shaped by constructive policy intervention, by and large, just even more than so in the extraordinary circumstances related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, it is important to empathize which are the virtually suitable forms of support that teachers and families can comprehend to sustain the digital learning procedure of children.

Figure 4. Association of learning attitudes and different forms of support by parents and teachers

Figure 4 shows that students brandish more positive attitudes and dispositions towards learning when they benefit from more parental emotional support.4 Parental emotional back up matters for most attitudes and displays a strong association with students' self-efficacy. More specifically, the forms of emotional back up that are constitute to be near beneficial are when parents encourage their children to be confident and when they back up their children's educational efforts and achievements (OECD, Forthcoming[12]). On the teachers' side, the analysis suggests that education environments where teachers are able to convey enthusiasm towards the content of their instruction support the development of positive learning attitudes in students, in particular ambitious learning goals, motivation to master tasks, self-efficacy and enjoyment of reading. The importance of teacher enthusiasm as a driving factor of educatee learning has been shown extensively in the literature: for instance, enthusiastic teachers help instill in their students positive subject-related affective experiences and a sense of the personal importance of the subject (Keller et al., 2014[26]) and they motivate and inspire students, increasing the productive time they spend on learning tasks (Keller et al., 2015[27]; Hoidn and Kärkkäinen, 2014[28]; Kunter et al., 2013[29]).

To give an indication of the benefits brought virtually by parental and teachers' back up to students' bookish achievements, Figure 5 focusing on students making intensive apply of ICT outside of school for schoolwork, compares performance in reading between those who report to take received, respectively, very high and very low levels of support5 – both from families and from teachers. This evidence, based on PISA 2018, shows that several forms of back up can be particularly effective in enhancing educatee learning. For example, amidst high ICT users, pupils who receive very high emotional support from parents or whose teachers are more than predisposed to back up them and stimulate their reading tend to perform significantly better in all subjects assessed in PISA. Parental emotional support is particularly effective: for instance, in the Slovak Democracy, students who use ICT very often and who receive very high support from families score on average 23 points more their peers with less support from families. Receiving strong emotional support from parents is similarly effective in some other countries, such every bit Republic of austria and Slovenia.

Figure 5. Association between students' performance in reading and support from families and teachers among students making intensive use of ICT outside of school for schoolwork

This evidence suggests that parents can play a crucial function during domicile schooling such as ensuring that their children follow the curriculum and supporting their children emotionally to sustain their motivation and ambitious goals in a situation where they might easily be discouraged from learning apart, also due to the lack of peer effects. Parental involvement during this phase could significantly help students to address the master challenges posed by online learning, spurring their active and democratic learning. However, many obstacles may hinder an effective engagement past parents: for example, they might struggle to engage in their children's schoolwork while combining their task obligations or other family obligations - a claiming that may exist specially acute for single parents. Parents might too experience uncapable of supporting them due to lack of digital skills, familiarity with the content of their children'south schoolwork or negative attitudes towards the material. For case, differences in educational levels of parents might give rise to further inequalities in educational attainments and this should therefore be of great concern for policy-makers. A recent report from the netherlands shows, for instance, that less educated parents take been less supportive of their children efforts during the lockdown and that this has been partly driven by the fact that they were feeling less capable to assist them (Bol, 2020[thirty]). Parents with low education might also hold negative attitudes towards learning themselves, thus underestimating the importance of their back up for their children'south skill development and, as effect, help them less than highly educated parents. Some other concern is that gender differences in math attitudes and achievements tin exist worsened during home schooling, when many children are supported mainly by their mothers in their schoolwork (Del Boca et al., 2020[31]; Farré and González, 2020[32]; Sevilla and Smith, 2020[33]). What is known is that many women take loftier levels of mathematics anxiety and previous research indicates that girls may be peculiarly sensitive to internalising mathematics anxiety when exposed to it from female developed figures (Beilock et al., 2010[34]). It is therefore crucial for governments and schools to accept firsthand actions in order to tackle these issues and foster parental interest.

Together with families, teachers play a fundamental function in helping students to make a more beneficial utilize of digital learning. In particular, the most effective practices relate to how teachers stimulate reading in students (east.g. the teacher poses questions that motivate students to participate actively or shows students how the information in texts builds on what they already know) as well as more than full general teacher support (e.g. when the instructor shows interest in every student's learning, continues teaching until all the students sympathise and provides extra-assistance when students need it) and directed-educational activity (e.grand. the teacher sets articulate goals for students' learning, asks questions to check whether students empathize the material, presents summary of previous classes at the beginning of each lesson). Similarly to parental emotional support, these teacher practices can significantly improve students' performance at schoolhouse and might be particularly relevant in this context, helping students to remain focused on their learning tasks and to go along their motivation and dispositions to learning. To give an example, in Australia, amid students that rely extensively on ICT for schoolwork, those whose teachers are more able to stimulate their reading score on average 17 points more than than their peers with lower support from teachers. Similar results are observed for some other countries, such equally Australia and Switzerland.

If learning attitudes are key drivers of students' (online) learning achievements, the chief challenge facing governments is therefore how to promote the evolution of those attitudes and how to support teachers and parents in strengthening them. Some countries have already implemented policies in this direction. These are discussed in the next section.

Policies to support families and teachers

The assay presented so far has highlighted the importance of both families and teachers in supporting students' learning and motivation, in regular times but even more than then during schoolhouse closures. It is therefore important for governments to facilitate their effective date. Finding effective ways for working parents to provide childcare and back up to their children in schoolwork while combining their jobs obligations is an of import challenge that many governments are attempting to address. Nearly OECD countries have already put in place interventions in this direction past extending, for example, family exit opportunities. In Slovenia working parents who are unable to reconcile work and family unit obligations are entitled to upwardly to iii-months paid leave, paid at 80% of their earnings past the government. Similarly, in Germany parents with children under 12 years of historic period are entitled to six weeks paid leave, paid at 67% of earnings upwards to a ceiling of EUR 2 016 per month. In the United States, co-ordinate to the Families First Coronavirus Response Act, parents with children under 18 years of age whose schoolhouse has closed are entitled to up to 12 weeks paid family get out, paid at two-thirds of earnings, up to a limit of USD 200 per twenty-four hours and USD 12 000 over the duration. Other countries accept put in place like provisions – due east.g. Canada, France, Italy, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, etc. - and volition continue them whilst schools remain airtight. Measures of this sort are crucial to spur parental involvement in their children'due south learning activities while preserving their jobs.

The provision of information to parents on how to finer support their children'due south learning can also better educational outcomes, both during a lockdown and in normal times. For example, Wide Open School, a web platform created in the United States, offers resources for educators and families for students from preschool to upper secondary educational activity. Part of these resources aim to develop disciplinary technical skills as well as creativity, critical thinking or social-emotional skills, while other resources support families, e.g. past helping lower income families get devices and improve broadband or past providing them with guidance almost social-emotional wellbeing. Across offering access to curated resource, the platform besides suggests a daily schedule to assistance students and families have a good residual of activities (Vincent-Lancrin, 2020[35]).

Education systems can also aim to strengthen school-parent date in society to provide appropriate information and guidance to parents on effective practices for supporting their children's learning. An example from Latvia is the Educational Television Aqueduct Tava Klase, which delivers loftier-quality educational textile tailored for different age groups and provides a way for parents to connect with schools (van der Vlies, 2020[36]). Equally an indicator of its success, a recent survey of parents, students and teachers testify that there is a strong positive association between the clarity of communications between schools and parents, and parents' conviction that their children would achieve their learning goals (Burns, 2020[37]).

Teachers also demand support to rapidly arrange their instruction practices to distance learning, whether regular or advertizement hoc. In this respect, France has mobilised its network of local digital education advisers to support the transition from confront-to-face to distant learning. The network of digital education directorate has supported both teachers and school principals - by providing them with online preparation about the availability and use of digital resources for pedagogical practice and past promoting education practices adapted to educational continuity and progressive school re-opening – and students – past working with local authorities to lend and deliver computers and learning worksheets to all students (Vincent-Lancrin, 2020[38]). Other countries accept decided to complement schooling resource and teachers' efforts in delivering high-quality online classes by also providing dwelling schooling broadcast on television or social networks. As an example, in the United Kingdom, the BBC has started to collaborate with teachers and educational experts and provides daily lessons to pupils in year 1 to 10, including videos and interactive activities aimed at keeping upwardly students' motivation and at stimulating their socio-emotional skills (Van Lieshout, 2020[39]).

Conclusions

The current COVID-19 crisis has forced many countries to close schools, colleges and universities to halt the spread of the virus. Due to the long-lasting negative consequences that school closures would have on skill accumulation, many education systems moved rapidly online on an unprecedented calibration. Since lockdowns may be introduced over again in the time to come until effective vaccines or therapeutics become available, it is of utmost importance for governments to reverberate on the primary difficulties that students, parents, teachers and school principals take encountered in adapting to this stage of massive online learning and intervene to improve harness the potential of online learning. For example, they should kickoff aggrandize infrastructure, ensuring that nobody is excluded from online lessons, and support students and teachers to use online tools and technologies in an constructive manner.

Based on forthcoming analysis in the Skills Outlook 2021, this policy cursory illustrates that students' attitudes and dispositions to learning, such as ambition or motivation, are important drivers of their educational achievements and tin can assist ensure that online learning is as effective as possible. In improver, this cursory showed that families and teachers play a crucial role in guiding children through the challenges of dwelling house learning: parents tin provide emotional and learning back up to their children, while teachers can act as mentors, encouraging agile learning and motivation and checking that nobody falls behind. Such interventions tin can considerably contribute to making online learning more effective. Given the crucial role that families and teachers play in the context of schoolhouse closures, governments can spur their constructive engagement by, for example, expanding family leave opportunities and past strengthening schoolhouse-parents communication.

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[33] Sevilla, A. and S. Smith (2020), "Baby steps: The Gender Division of childcare after COVID19", COVID Economic science: Vetted and Real-Time Papers, Vol. 23.

[viii] The Economist (2020), Closing schools for covid-19 does lifelong impairment and widens inequality.

[25] Tuckett, A. and J. Field (2016), Factors and motivations affecting attitudes towards and propensity to learn through the life form, Government Function for Science.

[1] UNESCO (2020), COVID-19 Educational Disruption and Response, https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse/.

[36] van der Vlies, R. (2020), Latvia: Tava klase (Your class), OECD Publishing, Paris.

[39] Van Lieshout, K. (2020), Uk: BBC Bitesize, OECD Publishing, Paris.

[38] Vincent-Lancrin, Southward. (2020), France: Réseau de délégués académiques numériques (Network of digital education advisers), OECD Publishing, Paris.

[35] Vincent-Lancrin, South. (2020), "Us: Wide Open School", Education continuity.

[vi] Woessmann, L. et al. (2020), Dice Schulkinder Die Zeit Der Schulschließungen Verbracht, Und Welche Bildungsmaßnahmen Befürworten Die Deutschen?.

Notes

← one. Other previous testify is contained for example in (Behncke, 2009[41]), (Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua, 2006[forty]).

← ii. Results hold when accounting for students' grade compared to modal grade in the country and type of program (full general, pre-vocational, vocational), mitigating the concern that results might be driven by schoolhouse characteristics.

← 3. Analogous results are establish for the other subjects assessed in PISA, i.e. science and mathematics.

← 4. Parental emotional support is an index synthetic in PISA grouping the following forms of back up embraced by parents: parents back up their children's educational efforts and achievements, they back up their children when they are facing difficulties and they encourage them to exist confident.

← v. Loftier and low levels of back up have been defined based on the values taken by the indices of parental emotional support and teacher practices, constructed in PISA. More specifically, students receiving depression/high support are those in the bottom/top quartile of the corresponding index.

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Source: https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/strengthening-online-learning-when-schools-are-closed-the-role-of-families-and-teachers-in-supporting-students-during-the-covid-19-crisis-c4ecba6c/

The Necessity for Continued Teacher Support Can Be Minimized Through the Use of:

Abstract

Positive learning attitudes can improve functioning at school and help students keep their motivation when schools are closed

Families and teachers: Can they provide effective support to digital learning?

Policies to support families and teachers

Conclusions

References

Notes

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